# Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs): structure, synthesis and uses

> What MOFs are: metal nodes, linkers and nets, synthesis, activation, characterisation, stability and uses, with MOF-5, HKUST-1, UiO-66 and ZIF-8 compared.

URL: https://www.labcanvas.com/mof

Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) are crystalline, porous materials in which metal ions or metal–oxygen clusters are joined by organic linkers through coordination bonds into an open, periodic network. MOF-5, Zn₄O(terephthalate)₃, reported by Li, Eddaoudi, O’Keeffe and Yaghi in Nature in 1999, stays crystalline when its pores are emptied and reaches a BET surface area of about 3,800 m² g⁻¹ (Li et al. 1999; Kaye et al. 2007). Because the metal node and the linker can be chosen separately, MOFs with pores from a few ångströms to over 3 nm, open metal sites and high water stability have been made, and they are studied for gas storage, CO₂ capture, separations, catalysis and drug delivery.

Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) Published 8 November 2026 Last updated 8 November 2026 37 references

![Metal–organic frameworks: Metal clusters and organic linkers built into porous crystals (Metal nodes + organic linkers)](https://www.labcanvas.com/materials/mof/mof-cover.webp)

**Contents**

**Contents**

- Metal–organic frameworks at a glance
- MOF diagram
- MOF crystal structure (high-resolution SVG)
- MOF in 3D (interactive)
- More MOF figures
- What is a metal–organic framework?
- Nodes, linkers and nets: reticular design
- Pores, surface area and open metal sites
- How MOFs are made
- How MOFs are characterised
- Stability in water, heat and acid
- What MOFs are used for
- Six MOFs to know
- How to draw a MOF
- Six MOFs compared
- Related materials
- More on LabCanvas
- Frequently asked questions
- References

## Metal–organic frameworks at a glance

| Definition | Metal ions or clusters joined by organic linkers into crystalline, permanently porous frameworks (Li et al. 1999) |
| --- | --- |
| Landmark | MOF-5, Zn₄O(BDC)₃: crystalline after its pores are emptied and heated to 300 °C (Li et al. 1999) |
| Metal nodes (SBUs) | Zn₄O clusters (MOF-5), Cu₂ paddlewheels (HKUST-1), Zr₆O₄(OH)₄ clusters (UiO-66), single Zn²⁺ (ZIF-8), Cr₃O trimers (MIL-101) and metal–oxygen rods (MOF-74) |
| Linkers | Carboxylates such as terephthalate (BDC) and trimesate (BTC), imidazolates such as 2-methylimidazolate, and dobdc⁴⁻ (from the child pages) |
| Nets | pcu (MOF-5), tbo (HKUST-1), fcu (UiO-66), sod (ZIF-8) and the MTN zeotype (MIL-101) |
| Pore sizes | From 3.4 Å windows (ZIF-8) to mesoporous cages of about 30 and 34 Å (MIL-101) (Park et al. 2006; Férey et al. 2005) |
| Surface areas | BET about 3,800 m² g⁻¹ for MOF-5 handled air-free (Kaye et al. 2007); Langmuir about 5,900 m² g⁻¹ for MIL-101(Cr) (Férey et al. 2005) |
| Design | Isoreticular MOFs keep one net while the linker changes, so pore size and functionality can be designed (Eddaoudi et al. 2002) |
| Synthesis | Mostly solvothermal, from a metal salt and the linker acid in DMF or DEF at 85–220 °C; also at room temperature, in water, by ball milling and by extrusion (child pages) |
| Open metal sites | Removing solvent bound to the metal leaves sites that bind guests: Cu in HKUST-1, Mg in Mg-MOF-74 (Prestipino et al. 2006; Britt et al. 2009) |
| Stability | From MOF-5, which degrades in humid air (Kaye et al. 2007), to UiO-66, stable above 500 °C (Cavka et al. 2008), and MIL-101(Cr), stable in water at pH 0–12 (Ding et al. 2019) |
| Uses studied | Gas storage, CO₂ capture, separations and membranes, catalysis, drug delivery, sensors and electronics (child pages) |

## MOF diagram

![Reticular design figure: building units and linker to MOF-5 on the pcu net, HKUST-1 deconstructed into paddlewheels and BTC triangles on the tbo net, UiO-66 on fcu, a library of inorganic SBUs and organic linkers, and nets of well-known MOFs (pcu, sod, tbo, fcu, nbo, acs, qom, csq, rht)](https://www.labcanvas.com/templates/web/mof-reticular-design-topology.webp)

Reticular design: secondary building units and linkers chosen for their points of extension and assembled on a net, shown for MOF-5 (pcu), HKUST-1 (tbo) and UiO-66 (fcu), with a library of SBUs, linkers and nets. An editable LabCanvas template.

[Edit this figure in LabCanvas](https://www.labcanvas.com/editor.html?template=mof-reticular-design-topology)[See the template](https://www.labcanvas.com/templates/mof-guides/reticular-design-building-units-linkers-nets)

## MOF crystal structure (high-resolution SVG)

![Metal–organic frameworks crystal structure drawn from its crystal file](https://www.labcanvas.com/materials/mof/mof-structure.webp)

A real MOF from its crystal file: MOF-5 (cubic, Fm-3m), ZnO₄ tetrahedra of the Zn₄O clusters joined by terephthalate on the pcu net. Drawn by the LabCanvas figure editor; open it to change the style, cells and view.

[Edit the structure in LabCanvas](https://www.labcanvas.com/editor.html?crystal=sample:mof-5)[Download SVG](https://www.labcanvas.com/materials/mof/mof-structure.svg)[Download PNG (3000 px)](https://www.labcanvas.com/materials/mof/mof-structure.png)

## MOF in 3D (interactive)

![Metal–organic frameworks 3D model](https://www.labcanvas.com/gallery3d/mof5atoms3d.webp)

Loading the 3D model…

A MOF in 3D: MOF-5, Zn₄O clusters (atoms) joined by terephthalate rings, 12.9 Å apart on a cubic net. Drag to turn it.

[Open in the 3D Studio](https://www.labcanvas.com/studio3d.html?add=mof5atoms3d)

## More MOF figures

![MOF synthesis routes figure: solvothermal MOF-5 in a sealed vessel, UiO-66 step by step, hydrothermal HKUST-1, ZIF-8 mixed at room temperature, the effect of the Hmim/Zn ratio, and modulated synthesis with benzoic acid](https://www.labcanvas.com/templates/web/mof-synthesis-routes.webp)

Three ways to make a MOF: sealed vessels in an oven (MOF-5, UiO-66, HKUST-1), two solutions mixed at room temperature (ZIF-8), and modulators that compete with the linker. An editable LabCanvas template.

[Edit this figure in LabCanvas](https://www.labcanvas.com/editor.html?template=mof-synthesis-routes)[See the template](https://www.labcanvas.com/templates/mof-guides/mof-synthesis-solvothermal-room-temperature-modulated)

## What is a metal–organic framework?

A metal–organic framework is built from two kinds of piece. The **nodes** are metal ions or small metal–oxygen clusters, often called secondary building units (SBUs); the **linkers** are rigid organic molecules, usually carboxylates or azolates, that bind a node at each end. Because each node accepts linkers in fixed directions and each linker has a fixed length, the pieces assemble into a regular, open network with pores of a defined size and shape.

Before 1999, most open coordination frameworks collapsed when their guest solvent was removed (Li et al. 1999). [MOF-5](https://www.labcanvas.com/mof/mof-5), Zn₄O(BDC)₃, changed that: its octahedral Zn₄O(CO₂)₆ clusters, joined by terephthalate (BDC) into a cubic net, stay crystalline when the pores are emptied and heated to 300 °C (Li et al. 1999). Handled without air, MOF-5 reaches a BET surface area of about 3,800 m² g⁻¹ (Kaye et al. 2007).

The same year, Williams and co-workers reported the copper framework [HKUST-1](https://www.labcanvas.com/mof/hkust-1) (Chui et al. 1999), and the field grew quickly. The metal node and the linker can be chosen separately, so MOFs span a far wider range of compositions than zeolites, and unlike [covalent organic frameworks](https://www.labcanvas.com/cof) they have metals in the backbone, which can act as catalytic or binding sites.

## Nodes, linkers and nets: reticular design

A MOF can be reduced to a **net**: replace each node by a point and each linker by a line. The net depends on how many linkers each node takes and in which directions, and naming it gives a blueprint for making related frameworks. The six MOFs on this site show the main types of node:

- **Zn₄O(CO₂)₆ clusters**, six-connected octahedra, on the primitive cubic **pcu** net in MOF-5.
- **Cu₂(CO₂)₄ paddlewheels**, square four-connected units, joined by triangular trimesate on the **tbo** net in HKUST-1 (Kong et al. 2013).
- **Zr₆O₄(OH)₄ clusters** with twelve carboxylates, on the face-centred cubic **fcu** net in [UiO-66](https://www.labcanvas.com/mof/uio-66) (Valenzano et al. 2011; Wu et al. 2013).
- **Single tetrahedral Zn²⁺ ions** joined by 2-methylimidazolate on the sodalite **sod** net in [ZIF-8](https://www.labcanvas.com/mof/zif-8); the zinc takes the place of the tetrahedral Si of a zeolite and the imidazolate bridges two zinc ions as oxygen bridges two silicons, so zeolitic imidazolate frameworks take zeolite nets (Park et al. 2006).
- **Cr₃O trimers** joined by terephthalate into supertetrahedra, which share corners on the **MTN** zeotype net in [MIL-101(Cr)](https://www.labcanvas.com/mof/mil-101) (Férey et al. 2005).
- **Infinite metal–oxygen rods** joined by dobdc⁴⁻ into a honeycomb of one-dimensional channels in [MOF-74](https://www.labcanvas.com/mof/mof-74) (Rosi et al. 2005).

Keeping the net and changing the linker is called **isoreticular** design. In the IRMOF series, MOF-5 is IRMOF-1, and longer or functionalised linkers on the same pcu net gave frameworks with designed pore sizes and functional groups, tested for methane storage (Eddaoudi et al. 2002).

## Pores, surface area and open metal sites

MOF pores range from windows narrower than many small molecules to mesoporous cages. ZIF-8 has cages 11.6 Å across joined by six-ring windows only 3.4 Å wide (Park et al. 2006), although the linkers swing so that the effective sieving aperture is 4.0–4.2 Å (Zhang et al. 2012). MOF-5 has alternating cavities about 12 and 15 Å across (Rowsell et al. 2005), HKUST-1 three kinds of pore about 12.6, 10.6 and 5.0 Å across (Wong-Ng et al. 2015), and MIL-101(Cr), with a giant cubic cell of about 702,000 ų, mesoporous cages of about 30 and 34 Å (Férey et al. 2005).

Surface area is measured from nitrogen adsorption at 77 K, usually with the Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) equation fitted to the low-pressure part of the isotherm (see [BET surface area](https://www.labcanvas.com/techniques/bet)):

$$\frac{1}{v\left[(p_0/p) - 1\right]} = \frac{c - 1}{v_m c}\,\frac{p}{p_0} + \frac{1}{v_m c}$$

where \(v\) is the amount adsorbed at relative pressure \(p/p_0\), \(v_m\) the monolayer capacity and \(c\) the BET constant. The value depends on how the sample is made and handled: MOF-5 gave a Langmuir surface area of 2,900 m² g⁻¹ in the first report (Li et al. 1999) and a BET value of about 3,800 m² g⁻¹ when made and kept air-free (Kaye et al. 2007), and UiO-66 ranges from 1,000 to 1,600 m² g⁻¹ with the number of missing linkers (Wu et al. 2013).

In some MOFs, solvent molecules bound to the metal can be removed without collapsing the framework, leaving **open metal sites** that face the pores. In HKUST-1 the water on each copper is removed by heating under vacuum, and the bare Cu²⁺ sites then bind CO and H₂ at low temperature (Prestipino et al. 2006). MOF-74 has one such site per metal, which is why Mg-MOF-74 captures CO₂ so well (Britt et al. 2009).

## How MOFs are made

Most MOFs are made by **solvothermal synthesis**: a metal salt and the linker acid are dissolved in a high-boiling solvent such as N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) or N,N-diethylformamide (DEF), sealed and heated, and crystals grow as the acid is slowly deprotonated. Typical conditions on the pages here:

- MOF-5: zinc nitrate and terephthalic acid in DEF at about 85–105 °C (Eddaoudi et al. 2002).
- HKUST-1: copper(II) nitrate and trimesic acid in water/ethanol at 180 °C for 12 h (Chui et al. 1999).
- UiO-66: ZrCl₄ and terephthalic acid in DMF at 120 °C for 24 h (Cavka et al. 2008).
- Mg-MOF-74: magnesium nitrate and 2,5-dihydroxyterephthalic acid in DMF/ethanol/water at 125 °C (Caskey et al. 2008).
- MIL-101(Cr): chromium(III) nitrate, terephthalic acid, HF and water at 220 °C for 8 h (Férey et al. 2005).

Other routes avoid heat or solvent. ZIF-8 forms within minutes when methanol solutions of zinc nitrate and 2-methylimidazole are mixed at room temperature (Cravillon et al. 2009), and water can replace methanol (Pan et al. 2011). MOFs have been made by ball milling (Beldon et al. 2010; Užarević et al. 2016), by continuous extrusion with little or no solvent (Crawford et al. 2015), at the half-kilogram scale under reflux (Ragon et al. 2014), and as thin films from the vapour phase (Stassen et al. 2016). In zirconium MOFs, a **modulator** such as acetic or benzoic acid competes with the linker for the clusters and controls crystal size and defects (Schaate et al. 2011).

**Activation** comes last and matters as much as the synthesis: the solvent in the pores is exchanged for a more volatile one and removed under vacuum, often with heating. Air- and water-sensitive frameworks such as MOF-5 must be activated and kept dry (Kaye et al. 2007).

## How MOFs are characterised

- **X-ray diffraction (XRD).** Single-crystal diffraction solves the structure; powder XRD compared with the pattern calculated from that structure confirms phase purity and shows whether the framework survives activation, heating or soaking. HKUST-1’s thermal stability to 240 °C was shown by thermogravimetry and high-temperature single-crystal diffraction (Chui et al. 1999).
- **Gas sorption (BET).** Nitrogen at 77 K gives surface area and pore volume; uptake of H₂, CH₄ or CO₂ tests a target use (Eddaoudi et al. 2002; Britt et al. 2009).
- **Thermal analysis (TGA).** Weight loss shows solvent removal and decomposition: above 500 °C for UiO-66 (Cavka et al. 2008), up to 550 °C for ZIF-8 (Park et al. 2006).
- **Spectroscopy (FTIR, NMR).** Shows the linker, bound guests and defects; infrared spectroscopy followed CO and H₂ binding at the open copper sites of HKUST-1 (Prestipino et al. 2006).
- **Defects.** Missing linkers change the properties: a typical UiO-66 sample lacks about 10% of its linkers, which raises its pore volume and changes its gas uptake (Wu et al. 2013), and modulators tune this (Shearer et al. 2016).

## Stability in water, heat and acid

Stability varies more among MOFs than any other property, and it often decides whether a MOF is useful. A useful rule is that strong, inert metal–linker bonds give stable frameworks: the Cr³⁺–carboxylate bonds of MIL-101 make it far more resistant to water, acid and base than zinc carboxylates such as MOF-5 (as reviewed by Ding et al. 2019).

- **MOF-5** degrades in humid air, so it is stored and handled dry (Kaye et al. 2007).
- **HKUST-1** is stable to 240 °C (Chui et al. 1999), but water binds to its copper sites.
- **ZIF-8** kept its crystallinity for 7 days in boiling water, methanol and benzene and for 24 h in 8 M sodium hydroxide at 100 °C (Park et al. 2006).
- **UiO-66** decomposes only above 500 °C, resists most chemicals and stays crystalline under 10 tons/cm² of pressure (Cavka et al. 2008).
- **MIL-101(Cr)** is stable in water at pH 0–12 for 2 months (as reviewed by Ding et al. 2019).

## What MOFs are used for

- **Gas storage.** MOFs were early candidates for methane and hydrogen storage (Eddaoudi et al. 2002; Kaye et al. 2007).
- **CO₂ capture.** Mg-MOF-74 has a dynamic CO₂ capacity of 8.9 wt% and releases the CO₂ at 80 °C (Britt et al. 2009); poly(ethylenimine)-loaded MIL-101(Cr) monoliths took up 1.05 mmol g⁻¹ of CO₂ from 400 ppm CO₂ at −20 °C (Wang et al. 2024).
- **Separations and membranes.** Thin ZIF-8 membranes separate propylene from propane (Kwon and Jeong 2013); Fe-MOF-74 separates olefins from paraffins (Bloch et al. 2012) and binds O₂ over N₂ (Bloch et al. 2011).
- **Catalysis and protection.** Modulated synthesis raises the catalytic activity of UiO-66 (Vermoortele et al. 2013), and UiO-66-NH₂ on fibres hydrolyses chemical warfare agent simulants (Lee et al. 2017).
- **Drug delivery.** MIL-100 and MIL-101 take up large amounts of drug molecules in their mesopores (Horcajada et al. 2006).
- **Electronics and carbons.** HKUST-1 films filled with TCNQ conduct electricity, with a tunable conductivity (Talin et al. 2014), vapour-deposited ZIFs are low-k dielectrics (Krishtab et al. 2019), and carbonised ZIF-8 gives porous carbons for supercapacitors (Chaikittisilp et al. 2012).

## Six MOFs to know

- [MOF-5 (IRMOF-1)](https://www.labcanvas.com/mof/mof-5): Zn₄O clusters and terephthalate on the pcu net, the prototypical MOF (Li et al. 1999).
- [HKUST-1 (Cu-BTC)](https://www.labcanvas.com/mof/hkust-1): copper paddlewheels and trimesate, 1 nm channels and open copper sites (Chui et al. 1999).
- [UiO-66](https://www.labcanvas.com/mof/uio-66): twelve-connected Zr₆ clusters on the fcu net, the prototypical stable zirconium MOF (Cavka et al. 2008).
- [ZIF-8](https://www.labcanvas.com/mof/zif-8): zinc and 2-methylimidazolate on the sodalite net, robust in boiling water and base (Park et al. 2006).
- [MIL-101(Cr)](https://www.labcanvas.com/mof/mil-101): supertetrahedra on a zeotype net with giant 30–34 Å cages (Férey et al. 2005).
- [MOF-74 (CPO-27)](https://www.labcanvas.com/mof/mof-74): metal–oxygen rods around hexagonal channels lined with open metal sites (Rosi et al. 2005; Britt et al. 2009).

## How to draw a MOF

For a paper, slide or poster, show a MOF at three levels: the metal node and the linker, the net they form, and the crystal with a pore marked. The reticular design figure above shows these for MOF-5, HKUST-1 and UiO-66, with a library of nodes, linkers and nets, and the synthesis figure shows the common routes; both open as editable LabCanvas figures. The crystal structure drawing is a high-resolution SVG of MOF-5 from its crystal file, and the LabCanvas figure editor’s Library has crystal files for the other MOFs here, where you can switch between atoms and polyhedra and change the cells and view. The 3D model opens in the LabCanvas 3D Studio for a rendered image.

## Six MOFs compared

| MOF | Formula | Metal node | Linker | Net | Pores | Surface area | Stability | First report |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| MOF-5 (IRMOF-1) | Zn₄O(BDC)₃ | Zn₄O cluster | Terephthalate | pcu | Cavities about 12 and 15 Å | Langmuir 2,900; BET about 3,800 m² g⁻¹ air-free | To 300 °C; degrades in humid air | Li et al., Nature 1999 |
| HKUST-1 | Cu₃(BTC)₂ | Cu₂ paddlewheel | Trimesate (BTC) | tbo | 1 nm channels; pores about 12.6, 10.6 and 5.0 Å | — | To 240 °C | Chui et al., Science 1999 |
| UiO-66 | Zr₆O₄(OH)₄(BDC)₆ | Zr₆ cluster | Terephthalate | fcu | Octahedral and tetrahedral cages | BET 1,000–1,600 m² g⁻¹ | Above 500 °C; most chemicals | Cavka et al., JACS 2008 |
| ZIF-8 | Zn(mIm)₂ | Single Zn²⁺ (tetrahedral) | 2-Methylimidazolate | sod | 11.6 Å cages, 3.4 Å windows | Langmuir 1,810; BET 1,630 m² g⁻¹ | To 550 °C; boiling water, hot NaOH | Park et al., PNAS 2006 |
| MIL-101(Cr) | Cr₃F(H₂O)₂O(BDC)₃ | Cr₃O trimer | Terephthalate | MTN (zeotype) | Cages about 30 and 34 Å | Langmuir about 5,900 m² g⁻¹ | Water at pH 0–12 for 2 months | Férey et al., Science 2005 |
| MOF-74 (CPO-27) | M₂(dobdc) | Helical M–O rod | dobdc⁴⁻ | Rod packing, 1D hexagonal channels | About 11–12 Å channels | BET 1,360 m² g⁻¹ (Fe₂(dobdc)) | Open metal sites bind water | Rosi et al., JACS 2005 |

## Related materials

[![MOF-5: Zn₄O clusters and terephthalate on a cubic net (Zn₄O(BDC)₃)](https://www.labcanvas.com/materials/mof-5/mof-5-cover.webp) MOF Zn₄O(BDC)₃ MOF-5 MOF-5, Zn₄O(BDC)₃: its cubic structure in 2D and interactive 3D, how it is made, surface area, stability and uses, with the original papers. Edit the figures free.](https://www.labcanvas.com/mof/mof-5)

[![HKUST-1: Copper paddlewheels and trimesate, tbo net (Cu₃(BTC)₂)](https://www.labcanvas.com/materials/hkust-1/hkust-1-cover.webp) MOF Cu₃(BTC)₂ HKUST-1 HKUST-1 (Cu-BTC), Cu₃(BTC)₂: its paddlewheel structure in 2D and 3D, how it is made, pore size, open copper sites and stability, with the original papers.](https://www.labcanvas.com/mof/hkust-1)

[![UiO-66: 12-connected Zr₆ clusters, fcu net (Zr₆O₄(OH)₄(BDC)₆)](https://www.labcanvas.com/materials/uio-66/uio-66-cover.webp) MOF Zr₆O₄(OH)₄(BDC)₆ UiO-66 UiO-66, Zr₆O₄(OH)₄(BDC)₆: its fcu structure in 2D and 3D, how it is made, missing-linker defects, pore size, surface area and stability, with the papers.](https://www.labcanvas.com/mof/uio-66)

[![ZIF-8: Zinc and 2-methylimidazolate on the sodalite net (Zn(mIm)₂)](https://www.labcanvas.com/materials/zif-8/zif-8-cover.webp) MOF Zn(mIm)₂ ZIF-8 ZIF-8, Zn(mIm)₂: its sodalite structure in 2D and 3D, how it is made, pore size, surface area and stability, with the original papers. Edit the figures free.](https://www.labcanvas.com/mof/zif-8)

[![MIL-101(Cr): Supertetrahedra building giant mesoporous cages (Cr₃F(H₂O)₂O(BDC)₃)](https://www.labcanvas.com/materials/mil-101/mil-101-cover.webp) MOF Cr₃F(H₂O)₂O(BDC)₃ MIL-101(Cr) MIL-101(Cr), a chromium terephthalate MOF: its giant 30–34 Å cages, MTN structure, synthesis, surface area, water stability and uses, with the original papers.](https://www.labcanvas.com/mof/mil-101)

[![MOF-74: Hexagonal channels lined with open metal sites (M₂(dobdc))](https://www.labcanvas.com/materials/mof-74/mof-74-cover.webp) MOF M₂(dobdc) MOF-74 MOF-74 (CPO-27), M₂(dobdc): its honeycomb channels and open metal sites, Mg-MOF-74 for CO₂ capture, Zn-MOF-74, synthesis and pore size, with the papers.](https://www.labcanvas.com/mof/mof-74)

## More on LabCanvas

- [Reticular design: building units, linkers and nets](https://www.labcanvas.com/templates/mof-guides/reticular-design-building-units-linkers-nets): Editable figure template
- [MOF synthesis: solvothermal, room temperature, modulated](https://www.labcanvas.com/templates/mof-guides/mof-synthesis-solvothermal-room-temperature-modulated): Editable figure template
- [More figure templates in this category](https://www.labcanvas.com/templates/mof-guides): Ready-made, cited figures to edit
- [Characterisation techniques explained](https://www.labcanvas.com/techniques): XRD, XPS, BET, SEM, TEM, NMR, FTIR, Raman and more
- [Crystal structure figure software compared](https://www.labcanvas.com/blog/crystal-structure-visualization-software): VESTA, Mercury, CrystalMaker, Avogadro and LabCanvas
- [XRD Scherrer crystallite size calculator](https://www.labcanvas.com/tools/xrd-scherrer-calculator): Free tool
- [Molar mass calculator](https://www.labcanvas.com/tools/molar-mass-calculator): Free tool
- [Journal figure size guide](https://www.labcanvas.com/blog/journal-figure-size-guide): Column widths and resolutions for 38 journals
- [3D models gallery](https://www.labcanvas.com/gallery): Turn MOFs, COFs, perovskites and more in 3D

## Frequently asked questions

### What is a metal–organic framework (MOF)?

A crystalline, porous material made of metal ions or metal–oxygen clusters joined by organic linkers through coordination bonds. MOF-5, Zn₄O(terephthalate)₃, reported in Nature in 1999, was the first to show that such a framework can be emptied of solvent and stay crystalline and porous (Li et al. 1999).

### What is a secondary building unit (SBU)?

The metal-containing node of a MOF, treated as one geometric unit: for example the octahedral Zn₄O(CO₂)₆ cluster of MOF-5, the square Cu₂(CO₂)₄ paddlewheel of HKUST-1 or the twelve-connected Zr₆O₄(OH)₄ cluster of UiO-66. Its shape and number of linkers decide the net the MOF can form.

### What is the surface area of MOFs?

Often well above that of zeolites and activated carbons: MOF-5 reaches a BET surface area of about 3,800 m²/g when handled air-free (Kaye et al. 2007), and MIL-101(Cr) a Langmuir surface area of about 5,900 m²/g (Férey et al. 2005). UiO-66 gives 1,000–1,600 m²/g depending on defects (Wu et al. 2013).

### How are MOFs made?

Most are made solvothermally, heating a metal salt and the linker acid in DMF or DEF in a sealed vessel. Some, like ZIF-8, form at room temperature in methanol or water; others are made by ball milling or extrusion. The pores are then activated by exchanging and removing the solvent (Eddaoudi et al. 2002; Cavka et al. 2008; Cravillon et al. 2009; Crawford et al. 2015).

### Are MOFs stable in water?

Some are and some are not. MOF-5 degrades in humid air (Kaye et al. 2007), but ZIF-8 survives boiling water and hot sodium hydroxide (Park et al. 2006), UiO-66 resists most chemicals (Cavka et al. 2008), and MIL-101(Cr) is stable in water at pH 0–12 for 2 months (Ding et al. 2019).

### What are open metal sites?

Metal atoms in a MOF left with a free coordination site after the solvent bound to them is removed. They face the pores and bind guests strongly: CO and H₂ at the copper sites of HKUST-1 (Prestipino et al. 2006) and CO₂ at the magnesium sites of Mg-MOF-74 (Britt et al. 2009).

### What is the difference between a MOF and a ZIF?

A ZIF (zeolitic imidazolate framework) is a kind of MOF in which single tetrahedral metal ions such as Zn²⁺ are joined by imidazolate linkers. The metal takes the place of the tetrahedral Si of a zeolite and the imidazolate bridges two metals as oxygen bridges two silicons, so ZIFs take zeolite nets, like the sodalite net of ZIF-8 (Park et al. 2006).

### What are MOFs used for?

Gas storage, CO₂ capture (Mg-MOF-74), separations and membranes (ZIF-8 for propylene/propane), catalysis (UiO-66), drug delivery (MIL-100, MIL-101), sensors and electronics, and as precursors to porous carbons (Britt et al. 2009; Kwon and Jeong 2013; Vermoortele et al. 2013; Horcajada et al. 2006; Chaikittisilp et al. 2012).

### What is the difference between a MOF and a COF?

A MOF joins metal nodes with organic linkers through coordination bonds; a covalent organic framework (COF) has no metal in its backbone and joins organic building blocks with covalent bonds such as boronate ester or imine links. Both are crystalline and porous and both are designed from building blocks and nets.

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**Contents**

- Metal–organic frameworks at a glance
- MOF diagram
- MOF crystal structure (high-resolution SVG)
- MOF in 3D (interactive)
- More MOF figures
- What is a metal–organic framework?
- Nodes, linkers and nets: reticular design
- Pores, surface area and open metal sites
- How MOFs are made
- How MOFs are characterised
- Stability in water, heat and acid
- What MOFs are used for
- Six MOFs to know
- How to draw a MOF
- Six MOFs compared
- Related materials
- More on LabCanvas
- Frequently asked questions
- References